Different countries, regions and peoples of Europe have different Christmas traditions, legends and superstitions, with many pagan rituals still associated with the holiday on the traditionally Christian continent. Witches, elves, fortune-telling and, of course, gift-giving itself are all part of the festivities.

Who is the bringer of gifts to children?

In most countries in Europe, children are greeted by little Jesus, the angels or Santa Claus during Christmas, although they don’t all arrive everywhere at once. In other regions, however, the little ones are surprised by other gift-givers.

Belgium boasts two traditional gift-givers in the Christmas season: Pere Noel and Saint-Nicolas. Saint-Nicolas brings gifts to children on 6 December while Pere Noel places the presents under the tree at Christmas.

The Dutch Sinterklaas arrives on board a steam boat accompanied by various characters of Black Pete in mid-November. Every year the Sinterklaas parade is a big celebration in the Netherlands. Children leave their shoes either before the fireplace or the garden door, and Sinterklaas rides his white horse Amerigo above the houses at night, placing sweets and other gifts in the shoes at the beginning of December. Gift-giving in the Netherlands happens at this time, and children do not get presents at Christmas.

Interestingly, in Iceland, gifts for the children are not delivered by Santa Claus or baby Jesus, but by the 13 jolasveinar, or Christmas rascals. They are characters of Icelandic folklore who take turns visiting children and leaving presents in their shoes in the 13 nights leading up to Christmas Eve.

Misbehaved children, however, get no gifts, only rotten potatoes.

In Italy, the two main figures of the festive season are Befana and Santa Claus.

According to tradition, Befana is a good witch who gave shelter to the Three Kings as they journeyed to baby Jesus. The three wise men (the kinds -ed.) asked the ugly old woman (Befana) if she would like to go with them to see baby Jesus, but she declined. Later, she had a change of heart and keeps searching for baby Jesus ever since, bringing small gifts to children each year.

Legend has it that Befana can change her appearance, and there are several customs associated with her.

In the town of Grado, for example, every year on 6 January, Italians can witness the landing of ugly sea witches. According to tradition, the witches arrive in glass boats to round up and take away naughty children.

Meanwhile, the streets of Bolzano are typically filled with over 400 costumed devils on the same day. The parade is led by St Nicholas, who protects the children from the horrors that follow him. This tradition comes from the legend saying that villages in the surrounding valleys were regularly plundered by masked boys who had been so badly tempted by the devil that it was only thanks to the intervention of St Nicholas defeating evil that they were saved.

The original British Father Christmas in green is a near-forgotten character, whose story goes back even further than the legend of St Nicholas. Various stories and legends make mention of the pagan winter festivals, where Father Christmas – wearing a green-hooded cloak – was an important figure, symbolizing the coming of spring with its long, green, hooded cloak and his wreath made of holly, mistletoe, and amber.

Another custom in England in the 1600s was the offering of cider (Wassailing). People would make hot cider-based drinks in large bowls and then walk from house to house, offering them to each other.

According to tradition, they used cider to ward off evil and to wake up the apple trees in time.

In Denmark, elves who would steal the children’s gifts are not scared away, but ‘bribed’. To prevent the surprises from getting stolen, rice pudding and porridge are prepared for the elves. In Norway, it is not the presents that need to be protected, but the brooms, which are hidden on Christmas Eve, as it is believed that this is when the wicked and naughty witches typically make an appearance to steal the brooms to fly around.

Superstitions and fortune-telling in Central Europe

Although the Poles are very attached to their Catholic traditions, they also have some customs that stem from various superstitions. It was an old custom to be very mindful on 24 December about what one can and cannot do, as people believed that however that particular day turned out to be, the next year would be the same. According to tradition, Poles were not to lend or borrow anything on this day, lest luck should leave their house. They weren’t allowed to chop firewood to prevent headaches, nor to hammer any nails, as that could cause toothache.

Out of „decency”, children were required to glance at their school notebooks for a brief moment to ensure an interest in learning and good grades in the coming school year. During the holidays they never dried their clothes or took daytime naps because it was believed to bring illness. Nor was there any quarreling on this day, to avoid any provocations or hostility within the family.

Besides the Christian traditions, some pagan traditions linked to Christmas still exist in the Czech Republic. Here, fortune telling and magic go hand in hand with building nativity scenes.

For young girls, Christmas is particularly exciting as they can find out if love will find them next year. As part of a charming tradition, young girls place a cherry tree branch in a vase on December 4th. If it blooms by Christmas, it’s believed that wedding preparations can commence.

Girls, or eligible bachelorettes, also have another method to peer into the future. According to tradition, in St. Valentine’s Day they must toss their shoes over their shoulders facing away from the front door. If the shoetoe points towards the door upon landing, true love is predicted to find the girl before the next Christmas.

In Hungary, an ancient pagan custom called „regoles” (or chanting rhymes) occurred during the winter solstice. Men would traverse from house to house, greeting people with rhymes to ensure abundance and fertility for the coming year. This ritual, often held on the 26th, the day after Christmas, involved exchanging good wishes and then soliciting donations.